In addition to increased complexity and interactions, questions of scale, and the need to set appropriate spatial boundaries, ecosystem management is differentiated from traditional single resource management by the need to consider humans as integral components of the ecosystem. This is manifested in four areas of direct relevance to the Corps.
1. The term "Ecosystem Services" is used to describe the goods and life-support activities that natural ecosystems supply. This helps explain why ecosystem restoration and management are believed necessary, and places the functions that ecosystems perform in their social context. All elements of the Corps deal with ecosystem services.
2. Increased emphasis is being placed on public involvement, i.e., obtaining input from "any individuals, organizations, or unit of government that might be affected by or interested in the results of the Corps planning process." (ER 1105-2-100 Appendix B). Districts are seeing additional need to coordinate and collaborate with the public on Corps property. The regulatory offices have a Public Review component of permit decisions.
3. Non-Federal sponsors are required to cost-share water resource development projects including ecosystem restoration projects. This assures public involvement and that a majority of the public support the project.
4. Partnerships are encouraged. Such collaborations can supplement budgets, labor, and skills; and build support for Corps activities.
During a PROSPECT class conducted by the Institute for Water Resources, the class participants are presented with five reasons why we are experiencing greater tension and conflict over natural resources and their use and management. Those reasons given include:
Shrinking resources - people, money, environment (natural capital)
Complex economics - interrelationships, e.g., coastal fish and wetlands, international markets
Legislation - endangered species protection, wetlands permitting
Greater public involvement - economics, lifestyle, leisure, public perceptions
Inherent conflicts - finite land base, competing interests, upstream activities.
The unabridged results from three years of classes are available here, based on team discussions on what can be done to help address some of the problems we are experiencing in the environmental arena.
For additional reading on the human component of ecosystems, the reader is advised to browse the publications page of the Institute for Water Resources. Several good sources of ideas are available there: http://www.wrsc.usace.army.mil/iwr/Products/reports/reports.htm#EE.